Origins of Neuroscience A History of Explorations into Brain Function

by Finger, Stanley

Edition: Reprint

ISBN13: 9780195146943

ISBN10: 0195146948

Format: Paperback

Pub. Date: 2001-10-11

Publisher(s): Oxford University Press

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Summary

With over 350 illustrations, this impressive volume traces the rich history of ideas about the functioning of the brain from its roots in the ancient cultures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome through the centuries into relatively modern times. In contrast to biographically oriented accounts, this book is unique in its emphasis on the functions of the brain and how they came to be associated with specific brain regions and systems. Among the topics explored are vision, hearing, pain, motor control, sleep, memory, speech, and various other facets of intellect. The emphasis throughout is on presenting material in a very readable way, while describing with scholarly acumen the historical evolution of the field in all its amazing wealth and detail. From the opening introductory chapters to the concluding look at treatments and therapies, this monumental work will captivate readers from cover to cover. It will be valued as both an historical reference and as an exciting tale of scientific discovery. It is bound to attract a wide readership among students and professionals in the neural sciences as well as general readers interested in the history of science and medicine.

Author Biography

Stanley Finger, Ph.D., is Professor in the Department of Psychology and the Program in Neural Sciences at Washington University, St. Louis.

Introduction

xvii

Part I: Theories of Brain Function

(62)

The Brain in Antiquity

(15)

Head Injuries in Early Hominids

(1)

Trepanation

(2)

Egyptian Medical Records

(3)

Illness and Mythology in Ancient Egypt

(2)

Mesopotamian Medicine

(1)

Ancient India

(1)

Ancient China

(1)

The Greek Elements and the Hippocratic Revolution

(2)

The Heart or the Head?

(1)

Galen and the Brain

(3)

Changing Concepts of Brain Function

(14)

Ventricular Localization

(1)

The Middle Ages

(1)

The Renaissance

(3)

Willis and His Contemporaries

(2)

Cartesian Mechanics and the Brain

(1)

The Eighteenth Century

(1)

The Discovery of the Respiratory Center

(1)

The Bell-Magendie Law

(2)

Some Remarkable Premonitions

(3)

The Era of Cortical Localization

(19)

Gall and Phrenology

(2)

The Reaction against Phrenology

(2)

Speech and the Frontal Lobe

(2)

Experimental Confirmation of a Motor Cortex

(2)

Ferrier's Experiments

(1)

Electrophysiological Recordings

(1)

Cytoarchitectonics

(1)

``Neuron Doctrine'' and Localization

(8)

Holism and the Critics of Coritical Localization

(12)

Cortical Equipotentiality and the Challenge from Phrenology

(1)

Challenges in the Post-Broca Era

(1)

Nerve Nets and Holistic Function

(1)

The Brain According to Goltz

(1)

Localization for Some But Not All Functions

(1)

Matters of Logic

(1)

Holism and the Gestalt Movement

(1)

The Holism of Monakow and Head

(1)

Franz and the American School

(1)

Lashley's Experiments and Theories

(2)

Conclusions

(2)

Part II: Sensory Systems

(128)

Vision: From Antiquity through the Renaissance

(11)

Visual Disturbances in Ancient Egypt

(1)

Assyro-Babylonian Ophthalmology

(1)

Ancient India

(1)

Greek Anatomy and Metaphysical Theories of Vision

(2)

Roman Theories of Vision

(1)

Arabic Cultures

(3)

Renaissance Optics and Physiology

(4)

Post-Renaissance Visual Anatomy and Physiology

(20)

The Discovery of the Blind Spot

(1)

Leeuwenhoek's Microscopy of the Retina

(1)

The Projections of the Optic Nerve in the Seventeenth Century

(1)

Some Eighteenth-Century Advances

(1)

The Discovery of the Stripe of Gennari

(1)

Rods, Cones, and Duplicity Theory

(2)

Boll's Discovery of Rhodopsin

(1)

Further Studies of Retinal Structure

(1)

The Optic Chiasma

(1)

Brainstem Terminations of the Retinal Projections

(2)

Early Hints of an Occipital Cortical Region for Vision

(1)

Ferrier's Studies with Monkeys

(1)

Munk's ``Discovery'' of the Visual Cortex

(1)

The Experimentalist Response to Munk's Ideas

(2)

Myelination and the Visual Area

(1)

Clinical Confirmation of the Occipital Localization

(1)

The Birth of Visual Electrophysiology

(1)

The Parastriate and Peristriate Areas

(1)

Some Unanswered Questions

(3)

Color Vision

(12)

Newton's Theory of Light

(1)

Color Vision in the Eighteenth Century

(1)

Early Descriptions of Color Blindness

(1)

Young's Trichromatic Theory

(1)

Helmholtz's Modifications of the Young Theory

100

(1)

The Color Science of Goethe

100

(2)

Purkyne and the Goethe Tradition

102

(1)

Hering and His Opponent Process Theory

103

(1)

Modifications by Ladd-Franklin and Donders

104

(1)

Phrenology, the Cerebral Cortex, and Color

105

(1)

Cortical Color Blindness

105

(3)

The Ear and Theories of Hearing

108

(16)

Greek Acoustics and the Implanted Air Theory

108

(1)

Roman Auditory Anatomy and Physiology

109

(1)

The Renaissance

109

(2)

The Seventeenth Century

111

(2)

The Eighteenth Century

113

(1)

Nineteenth-Century Physiology

114

(1)

Nineteenth-Century Anatomical Advances

115

(1)

Helmholtz and His Resonance Theory

116

(1)

Place Theories after Helmholtz

117

(1)

Pathology and Place Theories of Hearing

118

(1)

Frequency Theories

119

(1)

Auditory Electrophysiology and Theories of Hearing

120

(4)

Audition and the Central Nervous System

124

(10)

The Cochlear Nuclei

124

(1)

The Superior Olivary Complex

125

(1)

The Inferior Coliculus: A Reflex Center?

125

(1)

The Medial Geniculate Body

126

(1)

Ferrier and the Discovery of the Auditory Cortex

126

(1)

The Great Debate

127

(2)

Three Competing Theories

129

(1)

Auditory Auras

129

(1)

Corticla Deafness in Humans

130

(1)

More Contemporary Lesion Studies

131

(1)

Multiple Cortical Areas and Their Organization

131

(3)

The Cutaneous Senses

134

(14)

Cutaneous Sensation: One Sense or Many?

134

(1)

Weber's Psychophysical Studies

134

(1)

The Law of Specific Nerve Energies

135

(1)

Sensory Spots on the Skin

136

(1)

Specific End Organs for Cutaneous Sensation

137

(1)

Peripheral Nerve

138

(1)

The Peripheral Nerve and Illusory Sensations

139

(1)

Dermatomes

140

(1)

Spinal Cord and Brainstem Projections

140

(1)

Somatosensory Cortex: Lesions in Laboratory Animals

141

(2)

Lesions Involving the Postcentral Gyrus in Humans

143

(1)

Astereognosis

144

(1)

Stimulation and Epilepsy of the Human Parietal Cortex

145

(3)

Pain

148

(17)

Pain as Penalty

148

(1)

Atoms, Humors, and Pain

148

(1)

Multiple Theories of Pain

149

(1)

Limiting the Definition of Pain

150

(1)

Sensory Sports and Receptors for Pain

150

(1)

Double Pain

151

(1)

Phantom Limbs

151

(1)

Causalgia

152

(1)

Spinal Pathways: Early Nineteenth-Century Studies

153

(1)

Brown-Sequard's Experiments on the Spinal Cord

153

(1)

Schiff's Two Projection Systems

154

(1)

The Cases of Gowers and Spiller

155

(1)

Attempts to Treat Pain by Cutting Nerves and Tracts

156

(1)

Thalamic Syndrome

157

(2)

Gate Control Theory

159

(1)

Cerebral Cortex

159

(1)

Early Anesthetics

159

(1)

The Surgical Use of Nitrous Oxide

160

(1)

The Surgical Use of Ether

160

(5)

Gustation

165

(11)

Early Conceptions of Taste

165

(1)

Basic Tastes

166

(2)

Chemistry of the Primaries

168

(1)

The Tongue as the Organ for Taste

168

(1)

Differential Sensitivity of the Tongue

169

(1)

Specificity of the Papillae

169

(1)

Taste Buds

169

(1)

Development and Degeneration of the Papillae and Taste Buds

170

(1)

Vibration as a Mechanism of Receptor Activation

171

(1)

Cranial Nerves

171

(1)

Central Projections

171

(1)

Cortical Lesions: Laboratory Animal Experiments

172

(1)

Gustatory Cortex: Human Clinical Data

172

(1)

Taste Psychophysics

173

(1)

Henning's Taste Tetrahedron

174

(1)

Control over the Stimulus and Testing Procedures

174

(1)

Electrical Tastes

174

(2)

Olfaction

176

(15)

Early History

176

(1)

From the Renaissance to Haller

177

(1)

Putrefaction, Aromatics, and Olfaction

177

(1)

Changing Nineteenth-Century Orientations to Olfaction

178

(1)

Olfactory Primaries

178

(1)

The Adequate Stimulus

179

(1)

Olfactory Receptors

180

(1)

Air Currents and Receptor Activation

181

(1)

Olfactory Nerve and Bulb

182

(1)

Central Projections

183

(1)

Case Studies of the Limbic Lobe and the Cerebral Cortex

183

(1)

Forebrain Lesions in Laboratory Animals

184

(1)

The Anosmias

184

(1)

Zwaardemaker and Olfactory Psychophysics

185

(2)

A Myriad of Techniques of Olfactometry

187

(1)

Henning's Prism

187

(1)

A Degenerating Sensory System?

188

(3)

Part III: Motor Functions

191

(50)

The Pyramidal System and the Motor Cortex

193

(15)

Early Observations

193

(1)

Movement and the Cerebral Hemispheres before the Nineteenth Century

193

(2)

The Cerebral Hemispheres in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century

195

(1)

Jackson and the Motor Cortex Concept

195

(2)

Fritsch and Hitzig's Discovery

197

(1)

Ferrier and the Motor Cortex

198

(1)

Electrophysiology and the Boundaries of the Motor Cortex

199

(2)

The Corticospinal Tract

201

(1)

Voluntary Action and the Motor Cortex

201

(1)

Cutaneous Sensation and the Motor Cortex

202

(1)

The Motor Cortex and the Kinesthetic Sense

203

(1)

The Frontal Eye Fields

204

(1)

Motor versus Premotor Cortex Functions

204

(4)

The Cerebellum and the Corpus Striatum

208

(12)

The Cerebellum

208

(1)

The Cerebellum through the Renaissance

208

(1)

Thomas Willis and His Influence

209

(1)

Competing Ideas in the Post-Willis Period

209

(2)

Rolando, Flourens, and Magendie

211

(2)

The Cerebellum Early in the Twentieth Century

213

(1)

The Corpus Striatum

214

(1)

Defining the Corpus Striatum

214

(1)

Early Ideas about the Corpus Striatum

215

(1)

The Corpus Striatum through the First Half of the Nineteenth Century

216

(1)

The Impact of the Discovery of the Motor Cortex

217

(1)

Infrahuman Primate Studies in the First Half of the Twentieth Century

218

(2)

Some Movement Disorders

220

(21)

Ergot Poisoning

220

(2)

Sydenham's Chorea

222

(1)

Parkinson's Disease

223

(5)

Huntington's Chorea

228

(3)

Athetosis

231

(1)

Tourette's Syndrome

232

(4)

The Strange Case of Samuel Johnson

236

(5)

Part IV: Sleep and Emotion

241

(56)

The Process of Sleep

243

(13)

Greco-Roman Theories of Sleep

243

(1)

Sleep in the ``Prescientific Era''

244

(1)

Measuring the Depth of Sleep

244

(1)

Sleep Deprivation in Humans

245

(1)

Sleep Deprivation in Animals

245

(1)

The Ability to Wake at Expected Times

245

(1)

A Plethora of Sleep Theories

246

(1)

Blood Flow and Anemia Theories

246

(2)

Chemical Theories

248

(1)

Deafferentation Theories

249

(2)

Evolutionary Theories

251

(1)

African Sleeping Sickness

252

(1)

Narcolepsy

253

(3)

The Nature of Dreaming

256

(9)

Ancient Egypt

256

(1)

Early Eastern, Biblical, and Spiritual Approaches to Dreaming

257

(1)

Greek Mythology and Medicine

258

(1)

Dreaming in Ancient Rome

258

(1)

From Church Doctrine through the Eighteenth Century

259

(1)

Dream Frequency

260

(1)

Stimulation and Dream Content

260

(1)

Dreaming among the Blind

261

(1)

Dreaming and Cerebral Dominance

262

(1)

Dreaming, the Unconscious, and Psychoanalysis

262

(1)

Eye Movements and Dreaming

263

(2)

Theories of Emotion from Democritus to William James

265

(15)

The Classical Period

265

(1)

Theories of Emotion in the Post-Renaissance Period

266

(1)

Bichat's Theories

266

(1)

The Muscles of Facial Expression

267

(1)

Darwin on Emotion

268

(3)

Darwin's Impact: Passion versus Reason

271

(1)

The Frontal Lobes and Emotion in Humans

272

(2)

The Frontal Lobes and Emotion in Animals

274

(1)

The James-Lange Theory

275

(1)

Criticisms of the James-Lange Theory

276

(4)

Defining and Controlling the Circuits of Emotion

280

(17)

The Early Concept of Sympathy and the Autonomic Nervous System

280

(2)

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems

282

(2)

The Hypothalamus and Emotional Expression

284

(2)

The Great Limbic Lobe of Broca

286

(1)

The Papez Limbic System

287

(1)

The Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

288

Expansion of the Limbic System Concept

(262)

Early Psychosurgical Interventions for ``Emotional'' Disorders

290

(1)

Moniz and Prefrontal Leucotomy

290

(2)

The Rise and Fall of Prefrontal Lobotomy

292

(5)

Part V: Intellect and Memory

297

(72)

Intellect and the Brain

299

(17)

Brain Size and Intellect

299

(1)

European Science and the Family of Man

300

(2)

Brain Size, Race, and Intellect in America

302

(1)

Mental Deficiency as an Atavistic Feature

303

(1)

Gender Differences

304

(1)

Criminality and the Apish Brain

305

(1)

Interpretive Dilemmas

305

(1)

The Call for the Best Brains

306

(1)

The Brains of the Elite

307

(1)

The Growing Concept of Association Cortex

308

(2)

Anthropology and the Frontal Association Areas

310

(1)

The Need for Objective Measures of Intelligence

311

(1)

From Craniometry to IQ

312

(4)

The Frontal Lobes and Intellect

316

(16)

The Frontal Cortex Defined and Divided

316

(1)

The Frontal Lobes in the Prescientific Era

317

(1)

Early Descriptions of Frontal Lobe Injuries and Tumors

318

(1)

From Swedenborg to Phrenology

318

(2)

Comparative Anatomy, Tumors, and Injuries before 1861

320

(1)

Hitzig's Experiments

321

(1)

Ferrier's Monkeys

321

(1)

Bianchi's Observations and Theories

322

(1)

Other Opinions from the Experimentalists

323

(1)

The Tumor Literature in the Era of Localization

323

(1)

The Brickner Case

324

(1)

Acute Frontal Lobe Damage in Humans

325

(1)

Pick's Disease

326

(1)

The Critics Speak Out

327

(5)

The Nature of the Memory Trace

332

(17)

Birdhouses and Wax Tablets in the Greco-Roman Period

332

(1)

Aristotle and the Laws of Association

333

(1)

Ventricular Localization of Memory

333

(1)

The Cultivation of Memory in the Middle Ages

334

(1)

Cartesian Mechanical Models of Memory

335

(1)

Willis on the Cerebrum

335

(1)

Hartley and the Associationists

336

(1)

Later Vibration Theories

337

(1)

Organic Memory: Another Questionable Theory

338

(1)

The Birth of Memory Science

338

(1)

Changes at the Synapse

339

(1)

Drainage and Irradiation Theories

340

(2)

Franz and Lashley

342

(2)

Pattern Theories

344

(1)

The Delayed Response Problem

345

(1)

Progress?

346

(3)

The Neuropathology of Memory

349

(20)

Early Descriptions of the Dementias

349

(2)

Alzheimer's Disease

351

(4)

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

355

(2)

Korsakoff's Psychosis

357

(2)

Wernicke's Encephalopathy and Korsakoff's Psychosis

359

(1)

The Lesions in Korsakoff's Syndrome

360

(1)

Avitaminosis

361

(1)

The Temporal Lobes and the Hippocampus

362

(7)

Part VI: Speech and Cerebral Dominance

369

(44)

Speech and Language

371

(15)

Early Descriptions of Loss of Speech

371

(1)

The Greco-Roman Period

371

(1)

From the Dark Ages through the Renaissance

372

(1)

The Seventeenth Century

372

(1)

The Eighteenth Century

373

(1)

Aphasia and Phrenology

374

(1)

Bouillaud and Localization Theory

375

(2)

Broca and the Revolution of 1861

377

(1)

Broca's Later Observations

378

(1)

The British Neurologists

379

(1)

Wernicke and the Circuitry of Language

379

(1)

German and Austrian Functional Approaches

380

(2)

The Search for the True Reality

382

(4)

The Emergence of the Concept of Cerebral Dominance

386

(14)

An Ancient Greek Theory of Brain Laterality

386

(1)

Mainstream Greek and Roman Science

386

(1)

The Symmetrical Brain and the Mind-Body Problem

387

(1)

Hemispheric Balance in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century

387

(2)

Mental Illness and Hemispheric Dysfunction

389

(2)

Clinical Reports on Aphasia in the Period before Broca

391

(1)

The Marc Dax Manuscript of 1836

391

(1)

Broca's Case for Dominance

392

(1)

Wernicke's Impact

393

(1)

Jackson's Case for the Right Hemisphere

393

(1)

The Search for Anatomical Correlates of Cerebral Dominance

394

(1)

Theories of Personality, Emotion, and Insanity

395

(2)

Movements to Educate the Two Hemispheres

397

(3)

Expansion of the Concept of Cerebral Dominance

400

(13)

Acquired Alexia

400

(1)

Developmental Dyslexia

401

(1)

Prosopagnosia

402

(1)

One or Many Spatial Disorders?

403

(1)

Liepmann's Apraxias

404

(1)

Constructional Apraxia

404

(1)

Denial of Illness

405

(1)

Unilateral Inattention and Neglect

406

(1)

The Gerstmann ``Syndrome''

407

(1)

The Corpus Callosum Rediscovered

407

(6)

Part VII: Treatments and Therapies

413

(28)

Treatments and Therapies: From Antiquity through the Seventeenth Century

415

(14)

Ancient Egypt

415

(1)

Assyria

416

(1)

Ancient Greece

417

(1)

Ancient Rome

418

(1)

Mithridates and Universal Cure-Alls

419

(1)

Arabic Medicine before the Renaissance

420

(1)

Cures during the Pre-Renaissance Period in Europe

421

(1)

The Renaissance

421

(5)

Seventeenth-Century Treatments

426

(3)

Treatments and Therapies: From 1700 to World War I

429

(12)

Head and Brain Injuries in the Eighteenth Century

429

(1)

Cupping and Leeching in the Nineteenth Century

430

(1)

Animal Electricity and Electrotherapy before Galvani

431

(1)

The Roles of Galvani and Volta

432

(2)

The Early 1800s: From the Electrotherapy to Gothic Horror

434

(1)

Galvanism after 1850

435

(1)

Re-Education

435

(2)

Measuring the Effects of Therapy

437

(1)

The Birth of ``Modern'' Neurosurgery

438

(3)

Epilogue

441

(2)

Appendix: Dates of Birth and Death

443

(8)

Index

451

Origins of Neuroscience A History of Explorations into Brain Function

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